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9 de Julio · 1816

Argentina's Independence Day: much more than you wanted to know

Overview

9 July is Argentina's Día de la Independencia: a winter national holiday that commemorates the declaration made in San Miguel de Tucumán on 9 July 1816 by the Congreso de Tucumán. The deputies declared the Provincias Unidas en Sud América (United Provinces in South America, a polity whose claimed territory included more than modern Argentina) independent of Spain; days later they added a break with any other foreign domination (Educ.ar; Acta / Wikipedia). Under Ley 27.399 (2017), the date is an immovable national holiday (feriado nacional inamovible).

Official commemorations usually center on Tucumán and the Casa Histórica: Te Deum, flag raising, civic-military parade, presidential attendance in most years. Across the country people eat winter dishes, especially locro. Schools run pageants and flag ceremonies. Argentina also keeps 25 May (the May Revolution of 1810) as a major patriotic holiday; the two dates are often mentioned together and sometimes mixed up (La Nación). Historian Daniel Balmaceda puts the difference as autonomy in 1810 versus independence and sovereignty in 1816.

The rest of this page covers how the declaration came about, who was included and excluded, how neighboring countries remember the same revolutionary cycle, when independence was recognized abroad, how the holiday changed afterward and common mix-ups. Later governments reused 9 July for their own projects (Rivadavia 1826, Rosas 1835, Perón 1947, Operativo Independencia 1975, recent administrations). The Casa Histórica itself was mostly demolished in 1903–04 and reconstructed in 1943.

Francisco Fortuny's painting of deputies celebrating inside the Congreso de Tucumán.
Francisco Fortuny's 1910 depiction of the Congreso de Tucumán. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Part I: how Argentina became independent

Before 1810: a viceroyalty, not "Argentina"

The schoolbook story often starts in May 1810. The institutional background starts earlier. In 1776 the Spanish Crown created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata with Buenos Aires as capital, grouping jurisdictions that today cover Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia. Ternavasio notes that this was not yet a natural Argentine unit: it was a heterogeneous imperial space with changing borders and competing territorial loyalties.

The British invasions of 1806–1807 matter because they exposed the weakness of Spanish authority and militarized Buenos Aires society. The city defended itself, gained political confidence and grew used to acting on its own before the formal May Revolution. Ternavasio also notes that Buenos Aires still behaved more like the center of a local governorship than the real capital of a huge integrated viceroyalty, until May 1810 forced it to try to command that space.

Map showing the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1795 across southern South America.
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1795, the imperial frame that 1810–1816 broke apart. Rasterized from TRAJAN 117, GFDL, via Wikimedia Commons.

1810: autonomy, not independence

The chain of events began not in Buenos Aires but in Europe. In 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, forced the abdications of Carlos IV and Fernando VII and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. Spanish resistance juntas governed in Fernando's name; as they collapsed one by one, the legitimacy of colonial authorities in America collapsed with them. When news reached Buenos Aires in May 1810 that the Junta of Seville (the last major seat of Spanish resistance) had fallen, the criollos of Buenos Aires forced the issue.

During the Semana de Mayo (18–25 May 1810), Buenos Aires removed Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and installed the Primera Junta, presided over by Cornelio Saavedra. Mariano Moreno, Juan José Paso and Manuel Belgrano were among the main figures.

The Junta declared it governed "in the name of Sr. D. Fernando VII" (the famous "máscara de Fernando VII" / "mask of Ferdinand VII"). The legal theory often invoked was retroversión de la soberanía: with the king captive and the imperial order collapsing, sovereignty reverted to the pueblos. Ternavasio notes that "pueblo"/"pueblos" did not mean "the Argentine people" as a single nation; they could mean cities, provinces or local corporate communities claiming their own rights (CONICET / Ternavasio interview). Early 1810 looks less like "Argentina vs Spain" and more like a fight over who had the right to govern the ruins of the old viceroyalty. Either way, no independence was declared in 1810. Educ.ar frames 9 July as the first explicit will of emancipation after the political process begun in May (Educ.ar).

Buenos Aires tries to inherit the viceroyalty

After May 1810, Ternavasio argues, Buenos Aires tried to make the old viceroyalty obey the revolutionary government seated in Buenos Aires and only then discovered what its capital claim actually required (support from jurisdictions it had not previously needed to command in the same way). That is why Paraguay, the Banda Oriental (roughly modern Uruguay), Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and the Litoral (the river provinces of northeastern Argentina) sit outside a single Argentine national story: Paraguay's autonomy became a point of no return; the Banda Oriental and Litoral tied themselves to the federal/confederal alternative of Artigas; Upper Peru remained militarily unstable.

Ternavasio treats the early conflict as civil war as much as anti-Spanish war: communities, cities, provinces, royalists, autonomists, centralists and federalists fought inside the collapsing Spanish monarchy. The "patriots vs Spain" framing becomes available only later.

Six years of war and quarrel (1810–1816)

The years between were not a quiet wait for a decision already made. Belgrano fought in Paraguay, the Banda Oriental and the north; Spanish loyalists pushed back hard in Upper Peru; Fernando VII returned to the throne and tried to restore imperial control; and Artigas's Liga Federal broke with Buenos Aires. By early 1816 the revolution faced royalist pressure, Portuguese pressure and civil conflict, which made formal independence harder to postpone.

Why Tucumán and not Buenos Aires

The provinces wanted a Congress outside Buenos Aires. Tucumán was inland, militarily safer and less identified with the port city's centralism. Choosing it signaled that independence would be a provincial decision, not another order from Buenos Aires.

The Congress still did not represent every territory Buenos Aires hoped to inherit. It included interior and Alto Perú deputies, while the Litoral under Artigas, the Banda Oriental and Paraguay stayed out.

Approximate 1816 map of the United Provinces in South America, including areas beyond modern Argentina.
Approximate 1816 map of the United Provinces, useful mainly for showing how much the claim exceeded modern Argentina. Adapted from Misteruploader, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

San Martín's pressure and the "juridical" argument for independence

From Mendoza, where he was organizing the Army of the Andes, San Martín pressed the Congress to stop fighting as nominal vassals of the king. In an April 1816 letter to Tomás Godoy Cruz, he mocked the contradiction: "How long are we going to wait to declare our independence!" The declaration was a military necessity as much as a legal act.

The session of 9 July 1816

On 9 July 1816, the deputies met in the house of Francisca Bazán de Laguna. President Francisco Narciso de Laprida put the independence question to the room and the deputies answered yes. The Acta de la Independencia declared the provinces' will to break ties with the kings of Spain and become a free nation independent of Ferdinand VII, his successors and metropolis.

Printed Acta de la Independencia with the declaration text and signatures.
A printed Acta of the declaration. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

"…and of all other foreign domination": the 19 July addition

The 9 July text broke with Spain but said nothing about other powers. In the following days, rumors circulated that the Director Pueyrredón, General Belgrano and even some deputies were entertaining schemes to hand the country to Portugal (or, earlier, to Britain; Alvear had floated a British protectorate in 1815). Belgrano's own monarchy proposal fed these fears.

A few days later, the Congress added "y de toda otra dominación extranjera", closing the door on rumors that the new state might be handed to Portugal or another power.

The monarchy-vs-republic debate and Belgrano's Inca prince

Independence did not settle the form of government. Constitutional monarchy still looked normal in post-Napoleonic Europe and Belgrano even proposed crowning a descendant of the Incas with the capital at Cuzco. San Martín, Güemes and Alto Perú deputies were sympathetic, but the plan collapsed under porteño elite opposition, no agreed candidate and racist objections. A durable republican constitution came only in 1853.

The Acta in Spanish, Quechua and Aymara

The Congress ordered the Acta printed in Quechua and Aymara as well as Spanish, because the United Provinces still claimed Alto Perú and wanted the declaration to circulate beyond Spanish-speaking elites. A Guaraní version was proposed but not distributed while the Litoral was at war with Buenos Aires.

After the declaration: the wider Spanish-American context

In 1817 San Martín crossed the Andes and defeated royalist forces at Chacabuco. The army could now claim to fight for a declared sovereign state, not for rebels still pretending loyalty to the king.

The Congress later approved a unitary constitution that failed, then dissolved after civil war. The declared "Provincias Unidas en Sud América" still bore little resemblance to today's Argentina: Alto Perú became Bolivia, while Uruguay's path to independence followed its own course.

Do neighbors celebrate this?

No neighboring country celebrates 9 July as its own national holiday. Chile and Peru remember parts of the same 1810s–1820s cycle positively, but through their own independence stories: in Chile, the crossing of the Andes and the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú are remembered as victories for Chilean and Argentine patriots, and San Martín and O'Higgins then organized the expedition to Peru (Memoria Chilena; San Martín / Memoria Chilena). That memory is not "Argentina intervened in us" so much as "a trans-Andean patriot army helped finish our war against Spain."

The more suspicious memories are in places where Buenos Aires tried to inherit the old viceroyalty. Paraguay's independence narrative stresses that Buenos Aires wanted to keep Paraguay inside those borders and sent Belgrano after Paraguay refused; Paraguayan patriots defeated his expedition at Paraguarí and Tacuarí and sought independence from both Spain and Buenos Aires (ABC Color). In the Banda Oriental, the Artiguist Protectorate built a federal alternative in opposition to Buenos Aires, so Uruguay's 1810s memory centers more on Artigas, local sovereignty and later Portuguese/Brazilian pressure than on Tucumán (Frega). Upper Peru sits between these cases: Charcas sent deputies to Tucumán, but Bolivia's later founding story is 1825, when the Alto Perú assembly chose not to join Argentina or Peru and declared its own state (Educa Bolivia).

International recognition after 1816

Recognition lagged behind the declaration. The compressed timeline is: 1818, Bouchard's Hawaiʻi episode is often remembered as the first recognition but is better treated as an irregular ship-and-flag episode (see the note below); 1823, the United States recognized the Government of Buenos Ayres and opened diplomatic relations later that year (U.S. Office of the Historian); 1825, Britain signed a Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation and recognized Argentina (UK History of Government); 1863, Spain finally recognized Argentina through the Treaty of Recognition, Peace and Friendship (Cancillería treaty PDF).

The name "Argentina" comes later

In 1816 the relevant name was Provincias Unidas en Sud América. Ternavasio notes that "Sudamérica" itself expressed uncertainty about which provinces would actually fall under the new legal condition, especially since the Banda Oriental and Litoral did not sit in the Congress. The failed centralist constitution of 1826 used the label República Argentina and declared a representative republican form, but provincial rejection prevented a stable modern state (Wikipedia; UCA on denominations). For Ternavasio, the history of the Argentine Republic begins stricto sensu only after Buenos Aires accepted the 1853 Constitution (after 1860).

Part II: how the holiday evolved

The first celebrations and the 19th-century see-saw

Celebrations began immediately in Tucumán, but for much of the 19th century 25 May kept the stronger place in patriotic culture. Rivadavia even folded 9 July into the May festivities; Rosas later restored it to full rank and used both holidays for federal political theater.

The Casa Histórica: demolition, the Templete and the 1943 reconstruction

The famous "Casita" was not originally a tiny cottage but a substantial colonial casona. The state later demolished almost all of it, preserving the oath room inside a decorative pavilion called the Templete. That pavilion helped create the popular image of a little adobe house.

The current Casa Histórica is a 1940s reconstruction based on old photographs and plans. Even its familiar schoolbook colors changed: later research restored white walls and blue openings rather than the yellow-and-green scheme many Argentines learned in school.

The reconstructed Casa Histórica de la Independencia in San Miguel de Tucumán.
The present Casa Histórica in Tucumán, photographed in 2025 and resized from the original. Horacio Cambeiro, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The Centenario (1916): a subdued centennial

The 100th anniversary in 1916 was muted. World War I kept foreign guests away, President Victorino de la Plaza skipped Tucumán and the moment sat in the shadow of the more lavish 1910 May centenary.

Balmaceda and others note an asymmetry that stuck: 25 May is remembered more vividly than 9 July in popular culture, partly because May 1810 has better-known protagonists in schoolbooks (La Nación).

Perón and the "Economic Independence" of 1947

On 9 July 1947, President Juan Domingo Perón staged an act of Independencia Económica at the Casa Histórica. It cast Peronist nationalizations and economic policy as a second emancipation, deliberately echoing 1816 (Infobae).

The Sesquicentenario (1966) and the dictatorships

The 150th anniversary in 1966 was swallowed by politics: Arturo Illia was overthrown days before the commemoration and the dictatorship reduced the anniversary to a military parade.

In 1975, the Peronist government launched Operativo Independencia, a military campaign in Tucumán against the ERP. Its name and location still tie the holiday to Argentina's later memory politics.

Modern commemoration: the standard ritual

Contemporary 9 July commemorations are usually centered on Tucumán and include:

  • A presidential visit to Tucumán and the Casa Histórica (in most years);
  • The Tedeum (Te Deum mass) in the Cathedral of San Miguel de Tucumán;
  • The izamiento (flag raising) in Plaza Independencia;
  • The "chocolate patrio" (hot chocolate shared in the plaza in the winter morning);
  • A desfile cívico-militar (civic-military parade) with the armed forces, gaucho associations, indigenous communities, immigrant collectivities and schools;
  • Nationwide Te Deums, school pageants and flag displays. Under Ley 27.399 (2017), 9 July is listed among Argentina's feriados nacionales inamovibles (immovable national holidays).

9 July falls in the depth of the southern winter, so the traditional food is warm and heavy: especially locro, plus empanadas, pastelitos, humita and tortas fritas. Locro is a slow-cooked Andean stew of maize, beans, squash and meat, now eaten on both national dates, 25 May and 9 July.

The patriotic link is newer than the holiday itself: food historian Carina Perticone argues that locro became the dominant patriotic dish in Buenos Aires only in the 20th century (iProfesional interview).

The Bicentenario (2016)

On 9 July 2016, President Mauricio Macri led the Bicentenario ceremonies in Tucumán, hosted Spain's emeritus king Juan Carlos I and framed independence around Tucumán without mentioning May 1810, another example of the 1810/1816 conflation.

The Milei years (2024–2026): politics returns to Tucumán

Under President Javier Milei, 9 July again became a stage for national politics, part of the long tradition of later governments reusing the date. On 9 July 2024 he signed the "Pacto de Mayo" with 18 governors in the Casa Histórica. In the official speech, he presented 1816 as the end of the revolution and the beginning of a new order for the Provincias Unidas, then claimed the same role for his own pact: "El 9 de julio de 2024, con la firma de este Acta de Mayo… anunciamos también el puntapié inicial de un nuevo orden" ("On 9 July 2024, with the signing of this Act of May... we also announce the starting point of a new order"; Casa Rosada, 9 July 2024).

In 2025 he cancelled the Tucumán vigilia. The government cited fog and flight conditions; only a handful of governors had confirmed attendance, a sharp contrast with the 2024 photo. He marked the day instead at the Campo Argentino de Polo in Buenos Aires (TN).

In 2026 he returned to the Casa Histórica and leaned directly on the historical material that this article traces. He opened with San Martín's Army of the Andes line, "Seamos libres, y lo demás no importa nada" ("Let us be free, and the rest matters not"), then called his economic program "una suerte de cruce de los Andes en materia económica" ("a kind of Crossing of the Andes in economic affairs") and the moment "una especie de segunda Independencia" ("a kind of second independence"). He compared the colonial viceroyalty's failure toward the provinces with the modern national state's failure toward them, and likened his cabinet to "los librepensadores de 1816" ("the freethinkers of 1816"; Casa Rosada, 9 July 2026). The "second independence" framing follows the same pattern as Perón's 1947 Independencia Económica: another government using Tucumán to claim a sequel to 1816.

The period also brought a dispute over national museum leadership and budgets, with historians accusing the government of politicizing heritage institutions and the government saying it was removing ideological bias (Perfil).

Common mix-ups

  • 9 July 1816 ≠ the modern Argentine Republic. The Act declared the independence of the Provincias Unidas en Sud América, a larger entity that then included the Alto Perú. The name "Argentina" and today's territory consolidated later, especially after 1853–1860 (Ternavasio; Wikipedia).
  • May 1810 ≠ independence. 1810 was autonomy under the "mask of Ferdinand VII"; 1816 was formal independence and sovereignty. The conflation is common, including in presidential speeches (Macri in 2016).
  • "Argentina vs Spain" is incomplete. Early conflict was also civil war inside the old imperial order: cities vs capital, provinces vs provinces, Americans vs peninsulares, federalists vs centralists (Ternavasio).
  • July was not always the main patriotic holiday. May 25 had an earlier and often more privileged place; Fiestas Julias were added after 1816 (Educ.ar / Ternavasio).
  • The Congress did not speak for all of modern Argentina. The Litoral under Artigas stayed out; Charcas (today Bolivia) sent deputies (Educ.ar).
  • Independence did not settle republicanism. Constitutional monarchy, including Belgrano's Inca proposal, was seriously debated; it failed for political and social reasons, not because it was a joke (El Historiador).
  • The Hawaiʻi recognition story is half-true. A great trivia version says the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was the first state to recognize Argentine independence. The real episode is stranger: in 1818 the Argentine privateer Hipólito Bouchard reached Hawaiʻi, found a mutinied Argentine ship that had been sold to Kamehameha I and negotiated its return. Bartolomé Mitre later treated the agreement as Argentina's first international treaty; the narrower reading is that Bouchard solved a ship-and-flag dispute, not that Hawaiʻi opened normal diplomatic relations. So: funny, not invented from nothing, but not normal state recognition either (Images of Old Hawaiʻi; Nuestro Mar).
  • "Casita" and yellow-green walls. The house was a large colonial casona; the tiny-cottage image comes mainly from the 1904 Templete. Today's museum building is a 1943 reconstruction. School yellow-and-green colors come from a 19th-century painting; a 1996 study found white walls with Prussian-blue openings for 1816.